I addition to all the other stuff I am doing this semester, I decided it would be a good idea to take an online course that no one else was taking. Hooray! The things here will have nothing to do with Germany, so if that is all you care about, DIVERT YOUR EYES! Otherwise, it will be a series of short papers about ‘The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.’ I won’t update this often, but it is here if you get bored with reading about my life.

Assignment 3: “… read some stuff about some dude’s new theory and write about it.”(prompt paraphrased)

For years, through History Channel and PBS specials, history books, and now in my architecture studies, I have been lead to believe that the great pyramids were constructed of carved limestone and granite blocks, hauled up some sort of ramp system and set into place by thousands of Egyptian workers over decades. These ramps have assumed different forms, from one long ramp that grew with the structure, to multiple ramps from all sides, to spiraling ramps on both interior and exterior. Each theory has its supporters, and of course, its flaws. As always with issues that are left only to theory, it is up to each individual to decide what he believes to be the most probable.

The possibility of one long ramp that grows with the structure is the easiest for me to dismiss. Assuming a maximum 8% grade, which is standard even today for foot ramps, a massive, single ramp (presumably from the river) would have to be 6012.5 feet to reach the top of Khufu. If this ramp was built completely vertically, (without sloping sides, which would be impossible, but I am feeling generous) with a 10 foot width, the ramp would have an astounding 14,460,062.5 cubic foot volume. This would have been an impossible feat to accomplish, not to mention there is no evidence of any temporary construction of this scale. Sealing the coffin of this theory is the fact that there simply is not room on the Giza plateau for a ramp this long. According to my rough Google Earth measurements, the best possibility would be a ramp running South (not toward the river) which, at around .65 miles or 3400 feet, would fall off the plateau. This is simply not feasible.

Only slightly less absurd is the possibility of an exterior ramp, spiraling up the outside of the pyramid as construction progressed. The squared interior blocks would be set into place all the way to the top, with the ramp running alongside. Only after this was completed would the smoothed outer limestone be placed from top to bottom, and the ramp dismantled on the way down. This is a nice theory, save for one major flaw. The builders would not have been able to see what had been previously constructed, as it would have been covered by dirt all the way down to ground level. This would have rendered the astounding accuracy of the pyramid’s construction impossible.

The theory which I found most probable in the past, which is also being taught in Dr. Geva’s ‘History of Building Technology’ class in the College of Architecture (ARCH 345) involves an interior ramp that was constructed along with the pyramid. Some of the outermost stones would have been left out to allow space for a ramp to spiral up, incorporated in the structure. These ramps would have been sealed in after construction was completed. There is also evidence of corners being left out, where cranes could have been placed to help turn the massive stones around these sharp corners. I can certainly believe that the Egyptians were innovative enough to envision and execute a construction technique as elaborate as the ‘Internal Ramp Theory.’

These techniques are fairly standard, and widely accepted as being possibilities for the pyramid’s construction. I was shocked, however, to hear of a new, fairly radical theory involving cast stones, which had been brought to the table by Professor Michel Barsoum. In his presentation, he proposes that the interior of the lower half of the great pyramid is made of ashlar stone, as previously thought. The outermost finishing stones and the entire upper half, he believes to be made of an ancient form of cast concrete. Barsoum presents all sorts of evidence supporting his case, some of which is rather convincing, some is fairly weak. In the beginning of his presentation, Barsoum shows several slides of images with detail boxes pointing out specific areas which he notes with ‘These look like cast stone,’ comments. The images are nice, but I am not convinced. He then continues with images showing interior stones which were never intended to be seen, and states ‘Why would the Egyptians bother carving these stones so perfectly if they were never meant to be seen?’ This is a good question, but there could be dozens of responses, and scientific communities are not convinced of new theories by simply posing questions. This constitutes the weakest portion of Barsoum’s presentation, which was intentionally placed at the beginning. He then makes a smart move toward a more convincing argument. The next segment cites the irregular seams between limestone blocks that have remained perfect for millennia. Had the stones been square, the perfection would have been more plausible; however, the irregular and jagged nature of the surface makes carved perfection very improbable. Barsoum also sites image comparisons of Khufu and an older pyramid, Senefru, which is known to be cut stone. The difference he points out in the perfection of the seals between stones is fairly convincing, even to the naked eye. My favorite piece of evidence involves the existence of water inside the pyramid. He cites that when the pyramid was first opened in the 9th century, salt was found caked on the walls of the chambers. This implies the presence of salt water in the stones, yet the natural limestone found at Giza is very dry. This is fairly convincing, being that our concretes today never completely cure. According to bnet.com, there is likely to be around 190 liters of water in every cubic meter of commercial grade slab, thus explaining the presence of evaporated water in the pyramids after 5000 years of curing. Barsoum continues with a chemical analysis of the stones he claims to be cast, showing the presence of substances that, according to him, should not be there. I am not a chemist, so I can neither prove nor disprove his assertions, and must take them at face value. These could potentially be the ‘great evidence’ he needs to prove his theory, but could also be the nails in the ‘cast stone coffin.’

This opens a whole new door of Egyptian history possibilities. Yet just like all pyramid theories, it lacks the hard evidence to persuade the entirety of the Egyptology community. I find the possibility that the Egyptians invented concrete millennia before the Romans fascinating, and look forward to more study that could take this theory to a new level. The implications of an advanced form of concrete, created without Portland cement, are incredible. Barsoum speaks of reducing CO2 gas emissions, and providing inexpensive building materials to developing nations. These are great things which we should strive to achieve, whether by researching new technology, or 5000 year old technology. The possibility of working with an advanced ancient material could be a turning point in developing nations in Africa and Asia.

Barsoum organized his presentation in an intelligent manner, placing his weakest evidence first, appealing to the simple side of the human thought process, and progressing to his most complex evidence involving advanced chemistry. His case was fairly strong in the mind of a third year architecture student, and does a good job of capturing the mind of the reader, evoking a desire for further research. Barsoum is successful with presenting his progressive ideas, which have an innate shock value in due to their novelty. His most significant setback will certainly be centuries of scientific precedent. He is up against theories that have been in place, and supported by large numbers of researchers for years. As with all theorists who ‘rock the boat,’ he faces a long uphill climb if he wishes his theory to be accepted among the archeological community.

Assignment 2: “…Write about your favorite Wonder…”(prompt paraphrased)

Forsaking all preconceived notions, and 20 years of brainwashing from PBS, I have decided that the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is the greatest wonder of the ancient world, not the Great Pyramids at Giza. It completes the checklist of ‘Items Needed for Wonder Status,’ to a greater degree than any other. It was incredibly large, even by today’s standards, at 78.5 meters (257 ft.) wide by 131 meters (430 ft.) long by 20 meters (66ft.) tall. A construction project of this magnitude in the 6th century B.C. is a feat in its own right. It was beautifully decorated with human scale relief carvings on the front three rows of columns, an ornate frieze and pediment, perfectly shaped fluted columns with capitals, and, like all Greek temples, colorful paint. It employed new building techniques, such as lifting architrave blocks on ramps of sandbags that could be lowered into place by releasing some of the sand, and moving enormous stones with large wheels pulled by teams of oxen. These solutions to complex problems were amazing for their day. The architects stretched the limits of their materials, and took brave steps in construction and structural engineering, with open spans between columns reaching beyond six and half meters (21 ft.). This avant guard approach to temple building, which at this time was still in its early stages, makes Chersiphron, and Metagenes ancient architecture ‘All-stars’.

All of these qualities earn the temple of Artemis its place on the list of ancient wonders, but what sets it apart in my mind is its functionality, and daily use by the community. In the words of Thom Mayne, “I absolutely believe that architecture is a social activity that has to do with some sort of communication or places of interaction…” The most beautiful part of all Greek temples is their function as a social, political, and economical anchor for the community in which they reside. Much like gothic cathedrals, visitors would have travelled from all of Greece to see the temple, encouraging trade, and the exchange of ideas, boosting the local economy, and bettering the lives of the people of Ephesus. The Temple of Artemis, like all the other ‘Wonders,’ required time, effort, and economic commitment from the people who built it. Unlike the Great Pyramids, however, when construction was completed, it returned the favor.

Assignment 1: “…Write about the 7 Wonders…” (prompt paraphrased)

The monuments that comprise “The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World” were great structures that captivated the hearts and minds of all who encountered them. Whether because of size, decoration, location, beauty, or construction feats, they were all incredible in their own right. Though all but one are lost, information provided by ancient historians and archeologists of today can give a glimpse of what they looked like, and how they were built, as well as give insight into the lives of those who experienced them first hand.

Working from back to front, the seventh wonder, The Pharos of Alexandria, was a lighthouse located on an island at the entrance to Alexandria Harbor. Completed by Ptolemy II in 283 B.C., it stood for nearly 16 centuries. It finally collapsed in an earthquake in 1303, and was later replaced by the Arab fortress Qait Bey. The lighthouse stood 135 meters tall, second only to the great pyramids at Giza, and its light could be seen by ships 35 kilometers out to sea. It was most likely constructed of granite and local limestone, some blocks weighing up to 75 tons. Greek building techniques would have been available, including cranes and other equipment, and much of the Pharos is thought to have been built in the Greek style including a statue of the Greek god Zeus. The only visible Egyptian influence is in the form of Egyptian-style statues of Ptolemy and his wife.

If nothing else, the Pharos would have made the ‘Seven Wonders’ list based on its size. The cost and labor required for construction would have been astronomical, and approaching it would have made any sailor, visitor, or potential attacker feel minute in reference the colossal stone tower. It also housed a permanent garrison of soldiers to keep the lighthouse running, and all the supplies needed to support them. The Pharos was not known for its ornate decoration, which only consisted of statues of its builder at the base, and a large statue of Zeus at the top, but it served its purpose of showing the strength of Alexandria and its rulers.

The Colossus of Rhodes, sixth wonder of the ancient world, was an enormous bronze statue of Helios, god of the sun. After the island of Rhodes withstood the siege of Demetrius “Poliocretes” in 305 B.C., the Rhodians sold the left behind siege weapons and used the wealth to fund a statue of their patron god. Its original location and what it actually looked like are not known, being that it stood for a relatively small amount of time, and no eyewitness accounts or copies have been found. Once completed in 282 B.C., it only stood for only 50 years before it broke at the knees and fell in an earthquake. Fearing they had angered Helios, the Rhodians left the colossus on the ground where it still attracted spectators until it was purchased and carted off by a merchant.

Not only would the colossus’s size have been impressive, but also its construction techniques would have qualified it for the list of ancient wonders. The sculptor, Chares, built the statue in sections, casting the bronze around preconstructed moulds and internal iron bracing. To allow access, he built a mound of earth around the statue that increased in size as the Colossus progressed skyward, so only when it was completed, and the mound removed, was the statue able to be seen. This solution for building a statue of previously inconceivable size makes Chares and his Colossus the sixth wonder of the ancient world.

Built as a tomb for Mausolus, ruler of Caria, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus is the fifth wonder of the ancient world. At a height of 45 meters, and with an area of 1216 square meters, it was the largest tomb of its day, and the source of the word ‘mausoleum’ which is still used today. It had three main parts; a podium with bands of sculpture, a colonnade, and a stepped pyramid, on top of which stood a statue of a chariot. The only local stone was a lava stone used for the foundation; all other materials were cut and transported from all over the region. Metal rods were used to secure the huge stone of the foundation, and the architrave to support the span between columns. To portray him as the king who brought together the Greeks with the non-Greeks, both the architectural style, and sculpture showed Greek, Egyptian, and other regional influences.

The Mausoleum is a part of the list of wonders as a result of its ornate decoration. Five of the greatest Greek artists were brought in to sculpt the artwork. It would have been surrounded on all sides by beautiful, larger-than-life, painted statues. So much sculpture is believed to have existed, that some archeologists believe the podium must have been stepped to allow a resting place for it all. Though the structure collapsed sometime before the 15th century, it has lived on in many tombs that echo its style. This capacity to live on in other monuments, even through today, makes the Mausoleum worthy of a place in the list of wonders.

All that is known of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia comes from ancient writings and texts. Housed in a temple dedicated to him, the Greek god was shown seated, allowing him to be much larger, while still fitting in the space allowed. It was built of ivory and gold, and measured 14 meters tall. The detail of the ivory was formed by softening and unrolling ivory tusks into sheets that could be fitted onto a terracotta form and then attached to a wooden substructure. His robe and sandals were fashioned of gold, as was the winged victory held in the right hand.

The scale of this statue, as well as its beauty and extravagance qualify it for the list of wonders. The skill with which the artist, Pheidias, crafted the materials, and the beauty of its construction paid tribute to the god it depicted. Even after pagan gods were banned in the 4th century, the statue was moved to Constantinople and kept for its artistic value. Though it was destroyed by fire, the awe with which ancient historians regarded this monument and its ornate decoration earn its place as a wonder of the ancient world.

One of the largest Greek temples ever constructed, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was the third wonder of the ancient world. Built around 550 B.C., it was one of the earliest Greek temples constructed entirely of marble. Unlike most Greek temples, the columns at the front of the temple were decorated with life-sized, colored relief sculpture at their base. Three massive windows in the pediment allowed light into the temple and allowed worshippers to see their goddess Artemis from the altar. Great innovation in construction techniques were needed to complete this project. Solutions of raising huge lintels with ramps and transporting rectangular blocks by constructing wheels around each end to be pulled by teams of oxen were derived, and provided new possibilities for future structures.

The temple became one of the wonders of the ancient world through its ingenuity of construction, creation of new building technology, and the use of materials to their full potential. The completion of a structure previously considered impossible, ushers in new design opportunities for future builders. Though the techniques used in the building of the Temple of Artemis were never used again, they did serve as an example to the possibilities of construction, and the potential strength of marble, the Greeks’ favorite building material.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are one of the most fabled structures in history. Their location, design, and building technology are still debated. All that is known about them comes from historical texts which tell of a new palace, built by Nebuchadnezzar in fifteen days with terraces of trees and running water. It was allegedly built to pacify a queen who missed the mountain scenery of her Iranian home. Greek writers give its size of 120 meters square, and 25 meters tall, built of baked bricks possibly reinforced with bitumen reeds, a common practice in Mesopotamia. The whole garden would have been irrigated by a brilliant network of hidden channels, including Archimedean screws, long before the time of Archimedes, to lift the water to the top of the terraces.

Greek historians’ infatuation with the possibility of this garden is the reason for its placement on the list of ancient wonders. What was actually built, if anything at all, is not known for sure, as nothing survives today. A handful of suggestions as to its location have been presented, but are based on speculation. The idea of creating an environmental oasis where ever one pleases is a breeding ground for imagination, but it is this imagination that allows great structures, real or not, to become immortal. This is the case with the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The greatest wonder of the ancient world, The Pyramids of Giza, are also the only one still in existence today. The pyramids were built as burial chambers for Egyptian pharaohs of the 4th Dynasty, to immortalize themselves in the eyes of men and gods. This was achieved by sheer size, as well as strict adherence to construction guidelines. They were 146 meters high, and 230 meters long, giving them the prescribed 51 degree incline, and were oriented to the cardinal directions, varying from true North by 3’ of a degree. Most scholars believe a system of ramps was used to haul the massive stone blocks into position where they were cut to shape so as to fit perfectly into their neighboring stones. On the exterior was a layer of fine limestone casing blocks which gave the pyramids a smooth finish until they were stripped in the Middle Ages for use elsewhere.

The incredible size and scale of the Great Pyramids earn its place as the greatest wonder of the ancient world. All other structures paled in comparison, as Khufu held the place of ‘World’s tallest building’ for four thousand years. The organization needed to house and feed a workforce of up to 30,000 for 23 years of construction is a testament to the genius of its designers and builders. In reference to the technology of the time, a project of this magnitude never has, and probably never will be attempted or completed again.

The list of ‘The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World’ provided by Antipater of Sidon has been handed down for over two thousand years. The structures it contains are the things of legend, which are the subject of endless research and archeological digs. Their place on this list was earned by their magnificence of size, grandeur, decoration, and beauty, which, according to Antipater, could not be rivaled. The stories written by those who saw them give us a glimpse of their greatness, and how they earned the right to be called ‘The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World’